Roman emperor, philosopher, general, Stoic thinker.
Born
April 26
180
Died
March 17
180
Introduction
Marcus Aurelius was Roman Emperor from 161 to 180 CE, celebrated for both his wise leadership and his involvement in Stoic philosophy. Born in 121 CE into a notable family, he was adopted by Emperor Antoninus Pius, preparing him to become a ruler. After co-ruling with his brother Lucius Verus until Verus’s death in 169, he governed alone, facing wars against Germanic tribes and a severe plague. His renowned work, Meditations, shares personal insights on Stoic principles like reason, duty, and self-control, highlighting his role as a philosopher-king during challenging times.
Key Contributions
Meditations, correspondence with Fronto, leadership during military campaigns, imperial edicts.
Early life and education
Born on April 26, 121 CE, Marcus Aurelius came from a wealthy Roman family linked to Emperor Hadrian's inner circle. His father passed away when he was just three, leading his paternal grandfather to ensure he received an exceptional private education at home, which kept him away from public schools. From a young age, Marcus explored a wide range of subjects, such as drama, music, geometry, literature, rhetoric, and languages like Latin and Greek. His main interest lay in philosophy, particularly Stoicism, which he began studying around age twelve under his tutor, Junius Rusticus. Notably, Hadrian was impressed by Marcus's character and arranged for his adoption at seventeen by Antoninus Pius, Hadrian's designated successor, setting him on the path to become an important leader. Despite his frail health, he balanced his philosophical pursuits with the beginnings of a political career.
Philosophy and stoicism
Marcus Aurelius is known as a famous Stoic philosopher, though he didn't formally identify himself that way. His biographer, Julius Capitolinus, points out his Stoic leanings. In his writings, he references key Stoic figures like Epictetus, whose ideas had a significant impact on him. Aurelius's personal journal, the Meditations, reflects important Stoic ideas and offers insight into how he managed his duties as Roman Emperor.
At the core of Stoicism, which Marcus practiced, is the belief that virtue is the sole true good, and vice is the only evil. External events and material possessions are viewed as "indifferent" regarding morality. This view suggests that our happiness comes from our reactions and internal choices, rather than outside situations. In his writings, Marcus urges himself to develop qualities like justice, piety, and self-control. He focuses on leading an ethical life by syncing with nature and accepting that death and change are inevitable and beyond our influence.
Marcus drew heavily from Epictetus, a philosopher who once was a slave. Epictetus highlighted the importance of knowing the difference between what we can control—our thoughts and actions—and what we cannot, like external events and the behavior of others. This idea greatly influenced Marcus's own conduct and leadership style. His Meditations illustrate his efforts to handle stress, anxiety, and the demands of ruling by concentrating on this Stoic principle.
The Stoic view that Marcus subscribed to encourages a broader cosmic perspective. He believed individuals are part of an expansive natural order and community, recognizing rationality and our social nature as vital characteristics. This perspective motivated him to act justly and fairly, even amid wars and political strife throughout his reign. A central idea of his is that real harm arises only from wrongdoing, not from setbacks or injustices imposed by others. This aligns with the Stoic emphasis on distinguishing between what is within our control and what isn't.
In conclusion, Marcus Aurelius relied on Stoicism as a guide for both life and leadership. His Meditations continue to be a powerful reflection of his journey toward self-improvement, ethical conduct, and inner peace—rooted in the Stoic teachings on virtue, rationality, and accepting the fleeting nature of life.
Reign and military campaigns
Reigning as Roman emperor from 161 to 180 CE, Marcus Aurelius initially co-ruled with Lucius Verus until 169; afterward, he governed alone until naming his son Commodus as co-emperor in 177. His time as emperor marked the end of a peaceful era and faced numerous military challenges. He dealt with the Roman–Parthian War from 161 to 166 against Armenia and Parthia, sending six legions to assist the effort alongside Lucius Verus. Following this conflict, the Antonine Plague struck, causing significant suffering across the empire. Beginning in 166, Marcus led the Marcomannic Wars against Germanic tribes like the Marcomanni and Quadi, who invaded provinces north of the Danube. Despite his desire for peace, Marcus spent 14 of his 18 years on military campaigns, while his leadership played a critical role in maintaining stability during these challenging times.
Personal life and relationships
Marcus Aurelius was married to Faustina the Younger, a woman whose reputation was often questioned in Rome; however, Marcus remained deeply devoted to her throughout his life. After her death, he honored her memory by issuing special coins and chose to live with her legacy instead of remarrying. In his Meditations, he publicly expressed his warm affection and respect for Faustina, highlighting love entwined with destiny and integrity. Their marriage brought them thirteen children, which combined shared sorrows and joys. Besides Faustina, Marcus maintained a close friendship with Fronto, his teacher and confidant. Their correspondence included intimate letters filled with deep admiration and emotional connection, revealing his capacity for friendship that extended beyond family. Marcus's relationships represented his Stoic principles of loyalty, love, and philosophical camaraderie in every aspect of his life.
Legacy and influence
The legacy of Marcus Aurelius is deeply rooted in his role as a Stoic philosopher-emperor. His writings, especially Meditations, have inspired countless individuals with their focus on wisdom, resilience, and ethics. This collection of reflections on Stoicism has never been out of print, highlighting its timeless appeal. Aurelius's practical application of Stoic principles during his reign, particularly the importance of self-control and rational leadership, showcases his ability to remain steadfast amid chaos. While his rule marked the end of the Pax Romana, his philosophical contributions greatly extended beyond his political life. Today, modern leaders and thinkers continue to admire his humility and integrity, drawing from his teachings to help manage stress, uphold mental health, and engage in reflective self-awareness. His impact makes him a vital figure in making Stoicism a practical, lived philosophy rather than just a theoretical concept.
Writings and meditations
Marcus Aurelius' Meditations is a collection of personal writings reflecting his thoughts during his time as Roman emperor. Originally meant for himself, this work provides insight into his Stoic philosophy, which stresses the value of self-discipline, rationality, and acceptance of fate. The twelve books of Meditations don't follow a strict order; instead, they explore themes such as controlling judgment, living in the present, and aligning with nature's universal reason, or logos. Marcus emphasizes the importance of focusing on what one can control, steering clear of emotional responses, and developing virtue and justice in everyday actions. These writings highlight his commitment to thoughtful living and ethical integrity, even amid leadership challenges and life's uncertainties. His Meditations continue to serve as an important source for understanding resilience, purpose, and inner peace.
Final years and death
In his final years, Marcus Aurelius continued to lead military campaigns against the Germanic tribes threatening the northern borders of the Roman Empire. However, in 180 AD, he fell seriously ill, likely from the Antonine Plague, possibly a form of smallpox, while at his military camp in Vindobona, modern Vienna. Even with his health deteriorating, Marcus confronted death calmly, guided by his Stoic beliefs which stressed the importance of accepting mortality. He passed away on March 17, 180, surrounded by his son Commodus, who he had chosen as his successor to promote stability in leadership. Following his death, Marcus was deified, with his ashes returned to Rome. His decision to name Commodus, someone with significantly different and less capable qualities, is often seen as a turning point that initiated the decline of the Empire after the era of the “Five Good Emperors.”
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